ELISA-APPLICATIONS

Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay, also called ELISA, Enzyme ImmunoAssay or EIA, is a biochemical technique used mainly in immunology to detect the presence of an antibody or an antigen in a sample. The ELISA has been used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and plant pathology, as well as a quality control check in various industries. In simple terms, in ELISA an unknown amount of antigen is affixed to a surface, and then a specific antibody is washed over the surface so that it can bind to the antigen. This antibody is linked to an enzyme, and in the final step a substance is added that the enzyme can convert to some detectable signal. Thus in the case of fluorescence ELISA, when light of the appropriate wavelength is shone upon the sample, any antigen/antibody complexes will fluoresce so that the amount of antigen in the sample can be inferred through the magnitude of the fluorescence.
Performing an ELISA involves at least one antibody with specificity for a particular antigen. The sample with an unknown amount of antigen is immobilized on a solid support (usually a polystyrene microtiter plate) either non-specifically (via adsorption to the surface) or specifically (via capture by another antibody specific to the same antigen, in a "sandwich" ELISA). After the antigen is immobilized the detection antibody is added, forming a complex with the antigen. The detection antibody can be covalently linked to an enzyme, or can itself be detected by a secondary antibody which is linked to an enzyme through bioconjugation. Between each step the plate is typically washed with a mild detergent solution to remove any proteins or antibodies that are not specifically bound. After the final wash step the plate is developed by adding an enzymatic substrate to produce a visible signal, which indicates the quantity of antigen in the sample. Older ELISAs utilize chromogenic substrates, though newer assays employ fluorogenic substrates enabling much higher sensitivity.

Applications
Because the ELISA can be performed to evaluate either the presence of antigen or the presence of antibody in a sample, it is a useful tool both for determining serum antibody concentrations (such as with the HIV test[1] or West Nile Virus) and also for detecting the presence of antigen. It has also found applications in the food industry in detecting potential food allergens such as milk, peanuts, walnuts, almonds, and eggs.[2] ELISA can also be used in toxicology as a rapid presumptive screen for certain classes of drugs.
The ELISA test, or the enzyme immunoassay (EIA), was the first screening test commonly employed for HIV. It has a high sensitivity. In an ELISA test, a person's serum is diluted 400-fold and applied to a plate to which HIV antigens have been attached. If antibodies to HIV are present in the serum, they may bind to these HIV antigens. The plate is then washed to remove all other components of the serum. A specially prepared "secondary antibody" — an antibody that binds to other antibodies — is then applied to the plate, followed by another wash. This secondary antibody is chemically linked in advance to an enzyme. Thus the plate will contain enzyme in proportion to the amount of secondary antibody bound to the plate. A substrate for the enzyme is applied, and catalysis by the enzyme leads to a change in color or fluorescence. ELISA results are reported as a number; the most controversial aspect of this test is determining the "cut-off" point between a positive and negative result.
One method of determining a cut-off point is by comparison with a known standard. For example, if an ELISA test will be used in workplace drug screening, a cut-off concentration (e.g., 50 ng/mL of drug) will be established and a sample will be prepared that contains that concentration of analyte. Unknowns that generate a signal that is stronger than the known sample are called "positive"; those that generate weaker signal are called "negative."

complex system

[edit] History

Complex Systems is a new approach to science that studies how relationships between parts give rise to the collective behaviors of a system and how the system interacts and forms relationships with its environment.

The earliest precursor to modern complex systems theory can be found in the classical political economy of the Scottish Enlightenment, later developed by the Austrian school of economics, which says that order in market systems is spontaneous (or emergent) in that it is the result of human action, but not the execution of any human design ^{[1] [2]}.

Upon this the Austrian school developed from the 19th to the early 20th century the economic calculation problem, along with the concept of dispersed knowledge, which were to fuel debates against the then-dominant Keynesian economics. This debate would notably lead economists, politicians and other parties to explore the question of computational complexity.

A pioneer in the field, and inspired by Karl Popper's and Warren Weaver's works, Nobel prize economist and philosopher Friedrich Hayek dedicated much of his work, from early to the late 20th century, to the study of complex phenomena ^[3], not constraining his work to human economies but to other fields such as psychology^[4], biology and cybernetics.

Further Steven Strogatz from Sync stated that "every decade or so, a grandiose theory comes along, bearing similar aspirations and often brandishing an ominous-sounding C-name. In the 1960s it was cybernetics. In the '70s it was catastrophe theory. Then came chaos theory in the '80s and complexity theory in the '90s."

[edit] Topics in the complex systems study

[edit] Complexity and modeling

A way of modelling Complex Adaptive System

One of Hayek's main contributions to early complexity theory is his distinction between the human capacity to predict the behaviour of simple systems and its capacity to predict the behaviour of complex systems through modeling. He believed that economics and the sciences of complex phenomena in general, which in his view included biology, psychology, and so on, could not be modeled after the sciences that deal with essentially simple phenomena like physics ^[5]. Hayek would notably explain that complex phenomena, through modeling, can only allow pattern predictions, compared with the precise predictions that can be made out of non-complex phenomena ^[6].

[edit] Complexity and chaos theory

Complexity theory is rooted in Chaos theory, which in turn has its origins more than a century ago in the work of the French mathematician Henri Poincaré. Chaos is sometimes viewed as extremely complicated information, rather than as an absence of order ^[7]. The point is that chaos remains deterministic. With perfect knowledge of the initial conditions and of the context of an action, the course of this action can be predicted in chaos theory. As argued by Prigogine ^[8], Complexity is non-deterministic, and gives no way whatsoever to predict the future. The emergence of complexity theory shows a domain between deterministic order and randomness which is complex ^[9]. This is referred as the 'edge of chaos'^[10].

A plot of the Lorenz attractor

When one analyses complex systems, sensitivity to initial conditions, for example, is not an issue as important as within the chaos theory in which it prevails. As stated by Colander ^[11], the study of complexity is the opposite of the study of chaos. Complexity is about how a huge number of extremely complicated and dynamic set of relationships can generate some simple behavioural patterns, whereas chaotic behaviour, in the sense of deterministic chaos, is the result of a relatively small number of non-linear interactions.^[9]

Therefore, the main difference between Chaotic systems and complex systems is their history ^[12]. Chaotic systems don’t rely on their history as complex ones do. Chaotic behaviour pushes a system in equilibrium into chaotic order, which means, in other words, out of what we traditionally define as 'order'. On the other hand, complex systems evolve far from equilibrium at the edge of chaos. They evolve at a critical state built up by a history of irreversible and unexpected events. In a sense chaotic systems can be regarded as a subset of complex systems distinguished precisely by this absence of historical dependence. Many real complex systems are, in practice and over long but finite time periods, robust. However, they do possess the potential for radical qualitative change of kind whilst retaining systemic integrity. Metamorphosis serves as perhaps more than a metaphor for such transformations.

PRODUCTION POLYCLONALANTIBODIES

Production
These antibodies are typically produced by immunization of a suitable mammal, such as a mouse, rabbit or goat. Larger mammals are often preferred as the amount of serum that can be collected is greater. An antigen is injected into the mammal. This induces the B-lymphocytes to produce IgG immunoglobulins specific for the antigen. This polyclonal IgG is polyclonal purified from the mammal’s serum.
By contrast, monoclonal antibodies are derived from a single cell line.
Many methodologies exist for polyclonal antibody production in laboratory animals. Institutional guidelines governing animal use and procedures relating to these methodologies are generally oriented around humane considerations and appropriate conduct for adjuvant (agents which modify the effect of other agents while having few if any direct effects when given by themselves) use. This includes adjuvant selection, routes and sites of administration, injection volumes per site and number of sites per animal. Institutional policies generally include allowable volumes of blood per collection and safety precautions including appropriate restraint and sedation or anesthesia of animals for injury prevention to animals or personnel.
The primary goal of antibody production in laboratory animals is to obtain high titer, high affinity antisera for use in experimentation or diagnostic tests. Adjuvants are used to improve or enhance an immune response to antigens. Most adjuvants provide for an injection site, antigen depot which allows for a slow release of antigen into draining lymph nodes.
Many adjuvants also contain or act directly as:
surfactants which promote concentration of protein antigens molecules over a large surface area, and
immunostimulatory molecules or properties. Adjuvants are generally used with soluble protein antigens to increase antibody titers and induce a prolonged response with accompanying memory.
Such antigens by themselves are generally poor immunogens. Most complex protein antigens induce multiple B-cell clones during the immune response, thus, the response is polyclonal. Immune responses to non-protein antigens are generally poorly or enhanced by adjuvants and there is no system memory.

[edit] Animal selection
Animals frequently used for polyclonal antibody production include chickens, goats, guinea pigs, hamsters, horses, mice, rats, and sheep. However, the rabbit is the most commonly used laboratory animal for this purpose. Animal selection should be based upon:
the amount of antibody needed,
the relationship between the donor of the antigen and the recipient antibody producer (generally the more distant the phylogenetic relationship, the greater the potential for high titer antibody response) and
the necessary characteristics [e.g., class, subclass (isotype), complement fixing nature] of the antibodies to be made. Immunization and phlebotomies are stress associated and, at least when using rabbits and rodents, specific pathogen free (SPF) animals are preferred. Use of such animals can dramatically reduce morbidity and mortality due to pathogenic organisms, especially Pasteurella multocida in rabbits.
Goats or horses are generally used when large quantities of antisera are required. Many investigators favor chickens because of their phylogenetic distance from mammals. Chickens transfer high quantities of IgY (IgG) into the egg yolk and harvesting antibodies from eggs eliminates the need for the invasive bleeding procedure. One week’s eggs can contain 10 times more antibodies than the volume of rabbit blood obtained from one weekly bleeding. However, there are some disadvantages when using certain chicken derived antibodies in immunoassays. Chicken IgY does not fix mammalian complement component C1 and it does not perform as a precipitating antibody using standard solutions.
Although mice are used most frequently for monoclonal antibody production, their small size usually prevents their use for sufficient quantities of polyclonal, serum antibodies. However, polyclonal antibodies in mice can be collected from ascites fluid using any one of a number of ascites producing methodologies.
When using rabbits, young adult animals (2.5–3.0 kg or 5.5-6.5lbs) should be used for primary immunization because of the vigorous antibody response. Immune function peaks at puberty and primary responses to new antigens decline with age. Female rabbits are generally preferred because they are more docile and are reported to mount a more vigorous immune response than males. At least two animals per antigen should be used when using outbred animals. This principle reduces potential total failure resulting from non-responsiveness to antigens of individual animals.

MAUSED ASMEDICINE

Some monoclonal antibodies that have been introduced into human medicine
To suppress the immune system
Muromonab-CD3 (OKT3) and two humanized anti-CD3 monoclonals. Bind to the CD3 molecule on the surface of T cells. Used to prevent acute rejection of organ, e.g., kidney, transplants. The humanized versions show promise in inhibiting the autoimmune destruction of beta cells in Type 1 diabetes mellitus.
Infliximab (Remicade®). Binds to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Shows promise against some inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (by blunting the activity of Th1 cells). Side-effects: can convert a latent case of tuberculosis into active disease; can induce the formation of autoantibodies (by promoting the development of Th2 cells).
Omalizumab (Xolair®). Binds to IgE thus preventing IgE from binding to mast cells. Shows promise against allergic asthma.
Daclizumab (Zenapax®). Binds to part of the IL-2 receptor produced at the surface of activated T cells. Used to prevent acute rejection of transplanted kidneys. Has also showed promise against T-cell lymphoma.
To kill or inhibit malignant cells
Rituximab (trade name = Rituxan®). Binds to the CD20 molecule found on most B-cells and is used to treat B-cell lymphomas.
Zevalin®. This is a monoclonal antibody against the CD20 molecule on B cells (and lymphomas) conjugated to either
the radioactive isotope indium-111 (111In) or
the radioactive isotope yttrium-90 (90Y) Both are given to the lymphoma patient, the 111In version first followed by the 90Y version (in each cases supplemented with Rituxan).
Bexxar® (tositumomab). This is a conjugate of a monoclonal antibody against CD20 and the radioactive isotope iodine-131 (131I). It, too, is designed as a treatment for lymphoma. Although both Bexxar® and Zevalin® kill normal B cells, they don't harm the B-cell precursors because these do not express CD20. So, in time, the precursors can repopulate the body with healthy B cells.
On 3 February 2005, the New England Journal of Medicine reported that 59% of patients with a B-cell lymphoma were disease-free 5 years after a single treatment with 131I-tositumomab.
Herceptin® (trastuzumab). Binds HER2, a receptor for epidermal growth factor (EGF) that is found on some tumor cells (some breast cancers, lymphomas). The only monoclonal so far that seems to be effective against solid tumors.
Erbitux® (cetuximab). Blocks HER1, another epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor.
Mylotarg®. A conjugate of
a monoclonal antibody that binds CD33, a cell-surface molecule expressed by the cancerous cells in acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) but not found on the normal stem cells needed to repopulate the bone marrow.
calicheamicin, a complex oligosaccharide that makes double-stranded breaks in DNA.Mylotarg® is the first immunotoxin that shows promise in the fight against cancer.
LymphoCide. Binds to CD22, a molecule found on some B-cell leukemias.
Alemtuzumab (MabCampath®). Binds to CD52, a molecule found on white blood cells. Has produced complete remission of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (for 18 months and counting).
Lym-1 (Oncolym®). Binds to the HLA-DR-encoded histocompatibility antigen that can be expressed at high levels on lymphoma cells.
Angiogenesis Inhibitors
Vitaxin. Binds to a vascular integrin (alpha-v/beta-3) found on the blood vessels of tumors but not on the blood vessels supplying normal tissues. In Phase II clinical trials, Vitaxin has shown some promise in shrinking solid tumors without harmful side effects.
Bevacizumab (Avastin®). Binds to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) preventing it from binding to its receptor. Approved by the US FDA in February 2004 for the treatment of colorectal cancers.
Other
Abciximab (ReoPro®). Inhibits the clumping of platelets by binding the receptors on their surface that normally are linked by fibrinogen. Helpful in preventing reclogging of the coronary arteries in patients who have undergone angioplasty.

MONOCLONALANTIBODIES

Uses for monoclonal antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies are widely used as diagnostic and research reagents. Their introduction into human therapy has been much slower.
In some in vivo applications, the antibody itself is sufficient. Once bound to its target, it triggers the normal effector mechanisms of the body.
In other cases, the monoclonal antibody is coupled to another molecule, for example
a fluorescent molecule to aid in imaging the target
a strongly-radioactive atom, such as Iodine-131 to aid in killing the target.
Some monoclonal antibodies that have been introduced into human medicine
To suppress the immune system
Muromonab-CD3 (OKT3) and two humanized anti-CD3 monoclonals. Bind to the CD3 molecule on the surface of T cells. Used to prevent acute rejection of organ, e.g., kidney, transplants. The humanized versions show promise in inhibiting the autoimmune destruction of beta cells in Type 1 diabetes mellitus.
Infliximab (Remicade®). Binds to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Shows promise against some inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (by blunting the activity of Th1 cells). Side-effects: can convert a latent case of tuberculosis into active disease; can induce the formation of autoantibodies (by promoting the development of Th2 cells).
Omalizumab (Xolair®). Binds to IgE thus preventing IgE from binding to mast cells. Shows promise against allergic asthma.
Daclizumab (Zenapax®). Binds to part of the IL-2 receptor produced at the surface of activated T cells. Used to prevent acute rejection of transplanted kidneys. Has also showed promise against T-cell lymphoma.
To kill or inhibit malignant cells
Rituximab (trade name = Rituxan®). Binds to the CD20 molecule found on most B-cells and is used to treat B-cell lymphomas.
Zevalin®. This is a monoclonal antibody against the CD20 molecule on B cells (and lymphomas) conjugated to either
the radioactive isotope indium-111 (111In) or
the radioactive isotope yttrium-90 (90Y) Both are given to the lymphoma patient, the 111In version first followed by the 90Y version (in each cases supplemented with Rituxan).
Bexxar® (tositumomab). This is a conjugate of a monoclonal antibody against CD20 and the radioactive isotope iodine-131 (131I). It, too, is designed as a treatment for lymphoma. Although both Bexxar® and Zevalin® kill normal B cells, they don't harm the B-cell precursors because these do not express CD20. So, in time, the precursors can repopulate the body with healthy B cells.
On 3 February 2005, the New England Journal of Medicine reported that 59% of patients with a B-cell lymphoma were disease-free 5 years after a single treatment with 131I-tositumomab.
Herceptin® (trastuzumab). Binds HER2, a receptor for epidermal growth factor (EGF) that is found on some tumor cells (some breast cancers, lymphomas). The only monoclonal so far that seems to be effective against solid tumors.
Erbitux® (cetuximab). Blocks HER1, another epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor.
Mylotarg®. A conjugate of
a monoclonal antibody that binds CD33, a cell-surface molecule expressed by the cancerous cells in acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) but not found on the normal stem cells needed to repopulate the bone marrow.
calicheamicin, a complex oligosaccharide that makes double-stranded breaks in DNA.Mylotarg® is the first immunotoxin that shows promise in the fight against cancer.
LymphoCide. Binds to CD22, a molecule found on some B-cell leukemias.
Alemtuzumab (MabCampath®). Binds to CD52, a molecule found on white blood cells. Has produced complete remission of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (for 18 months and counting).
Lym-1 (Oncolym®). Binds to the HLA-DR-encoded histocompatibility antigen that can be expressed at high levels on lymphoma cells.
Angiogenesis Inhibitors
Vitaxin. Binds to a vascular integrin (alpha-v/beta-3) found on the blood vessels of tumors but not on the blood vessels supplying normal tissues. In Phase II clinical trials, Vitaxin has shown some promise in shrinking solid tumors without harmful side effects.
Bevacizumab (Avastin®). Binds to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) preventing it from binding to its receptor. Approved by the US FDA in February 2004 for the treatment of colorectal cancers.
Other
Abciximab (ReoPro®). Inhibits the clumping of platelets by binding the receptors on their surface that normally are linked by fibrinogen. Helpful in preventing reclogging of the coronary arteries in patients who have undergone angioplasty.

DISTRICT HEATING

The Danish district heating plants are an important part of the energy solutions of the future. In a cheap and environment friendly way 60 % of the Danish population is supplied with heat. The district heating is possibly the greatest Danish contribution for a clean environment and energy savings, because it is based on:
• Burning of waste• Industrial surplus heat• Geothermal heat• Production of electricity• Solar energy• Heat production on bio fuels• Heat production on fossil fuels• Wind energy
District heating is often based on renewable energy and thereby reduce the need for polluting, fossil fuels which is a great strength for the Danish economy and environment.
District heating is mostly based on surplus heat from power plants and industry. Whether waste is burned, electricity produced iron melted or metal developed in the industry there is at the same time heat produced which the district heating company can use to heat water with.
If the district heating plants did not use this surplus heat it would just disappear for no good. When a power plant is producing electricity only about 40 % of the energy in the fuel is being used, but by producing electricity and district heating at the same time as much as 90 % of the energy is being used.
In 2006 42 % of the district heating in Denmark consisted of CO2 neutral fuels – a share that is growing year by year.
Hot water between 75 and 90 degrees is distributed insulated pipes below the ground to heat the radiators in the houses; after it is cooled it runs back to the district heating plants to get heated up again.
District heating is an ecological benefit, but it is also an economical advantage. In 2006 the average cost was 13.850 DKK to heat a house 130 m2 with district heating compared to 21.300 DKK to heat the same house with oil. This difference is increasing due to the rising oil prices.
The district plants are working for

STERILIZATION OF MEDIA

Bacteria and fungi are grown on or in microbiological media of various types. The medium that is used to culture the microorganism depends on the microorganism that one is trying to isolate or identify. Different nutrients may be added to the medium, making it higher in protein or in sugar. Various pH indicators are often added for differentiation of microbes based on their biochemical reactions: the indicators may turn one color when slightly acidic, another color when slightly basic. Other added ingredients may be growth factors, NaCl, and pH buffers which keep the medium from straying too far from neutral as the microbes metabolize.
In this exercise, your table will make all-purpose media called nutrient broth and nutrient agar. These 2 media----one a liquid and the other a solid---are the exact same formula save for the addition of agar agar (really---agar agar), an extract from the cell walls of red algae. This particular medium will grow MOST bacteria that we use in lab: however, it is classified as a rather minimal medium since there is no added sugar to it (like trypticase soy agar or plate count agar).
The old way to make media was by the cookbook method----adding every ingredient bit by bit. The only time that is done today is when making a special medium to grow a certain finicky organism, where particular growth factors, nutrients, vitamins, and so on, have to be added in certain amounts. This medium is called a chemically defined medium (synthetic). Fortunately, the most common bacteria that we want to grow will do nicely with media that we commonly use in lab. Some of our media is bought, but most is produced in the prep area behind the lab. Since this type of medium has some unknown ingredients, or sometimes unknown quantities, it is called complex media.
It is really very simple to make complex media these days:
rehydrate the powder form of the medium
stir and possibly boil the medium to get the agar dissolved well
distribute the media into tubes
autoclave to sterilize the tube media
autoclave the agar medium for plate production and then pour into sterile petri dishes

CYTOKINONS

Nature of Cytokinins


Cytokinins are compounds with a structure resembling adenine which promote cell division and have other similar functions to kinetin. Kinetin was the first cytokinin discovered and so named because of the compounds ability to promote cytokinesis (cell division). Though it is a natural compound, It is not made in plants, and is therefore usually considered a "synthetic" cytokinin (meaning that the hormone is synthesized somewhere other than in a plant). The most common form of naturally occurring cytokinin in plants today is called zeatin which was isolated from corn (Zea mays).





Cytokinins have been found in almost all higher plants as well as mosses, fungi, bacteria, and also in tRNA of many prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Today there are more than 200 natural and synthetic cytokinins combined. Cytokinin concentrations are highest in meristematic regions and areas of continuous growth potential such as roots, young leaves, developing fruits, and seeds (Arteca, 1996; Mauseth, 1991; Raven, 1992; Salisbury and Ross, 1992).





History of Cytokinins


In 1913, Gottlieb Haberlandt discovered that a compound found in phloem had the ability to stimulate cell division (Haberlandt, 1913). In 1941, Johannes van Overbeek discovered that the milky endosperm from coconut also had this ability. He also showed that various other plant species had compounds which stimulated cell division (van Overbeek, 1941). In 1954, Jablonski and Skoog extended the work of Haberlandt showing that vascular tissues contained compounds which promote cell division (Jablonski and Skoog, 1954). The first cytokinin was isolated from herring sperm in 1955 by Miller and his associates (Miller et al., 1955). This compound was named kinetin because of its ability to promote cytokinesis. Hall and deRopp reported that kinetin could be formed from DNA degradation products in 1955 (Hall and deRopp, 1955). The first naturally occurring cytokinin was isolated from corn in 1961 by Miller (Miller, 1961). It was later called zeatin. Almost simultaneous with Miller Letham published a report on zeatin as a factor inducing cell division and later described its chemical properties (Letham, 1963). It is Miller and Letham that are credited with the simultaneous discovery of zeatin. Since that time, many more naturally occurring cytokinins have been isolated and the compound is ubiquitous to all plant species in one form or another (Arteca, 1996; Salisbury and Ross, 1992).





Biosynthesis and Metabolism of Cytokinins


Cytokinin is generally found in higher concentrations in meristematic regions and growing tissues. They are believed to be synthesized in the roots and translocated via the xylem to shoots. Cytokinin biosynthesis happens through the biochemical modification of adenine. The process by which they are synthesized is as follows (McGaw, 1995; Salisbury and Ross, 1992): A product of the mevalonate pathway called isopentyl pyrophosphate is isomerized. This isomer can then react with adenosine monophosphate with the aid of an enzyme called isopentenyl AMP synthase. The result is isopentenyl adenosine-5'-phosphate (isopentenyl AMP). This product can then be converted to isopentenyl adenosine by removal of the phosphate by a phosphatase and further converted to isopentenyl adenine by removal of the ribose group. Isopentenyl adenine can be converted to the three major forms of naturally occurring cytokinins. Other pathways or slight alterations of this one probably lead to the other forms. Degradation of cytokinins occurs largely due to the enzyme cytokinin oxidase. This enzyme removes the side chain and releases adenine. Derivitives can also be made but the pathways are more complex and poorly understood.


Cytokinin FunctionS


A list of some of the known physiological effects caused by cytokinins are listed below. The response will vary depending on the type of cytokinin and plant species (Davies, 1995; Mauseth, 1991; Raven, 1992; Salisbury and Ross, 1992).
Stimulates cell division.
Stimulates morphogenesis (shoot initiation/bud formation) in tissue culture.
Stimulates the growth of lateral buds-release of apical dominance.
Stimulates leaf expansion resulting from cell enlargement.
May enhance stomatal opening in some species.
Promotes the conversion of etioplasts into chloroplasts via stimulation of chlorophyll synthesis.

CULTERED MEDIA FROM MERON

Meron group established in 1976 started their activities by setting up a plant in the name of Deepa Ice & Cold Storage for production of Ice with a capacity of 40 tons per day. In the year 1982 Marine Chemicals was established with a view to produce Agar - Agar Food grade. After successfully introducing Food Grade Agar in the domestic and international markets and as a part of diversification Agar - Agar Bacteriological grade was introduced. The current range of production of Marine Chemicals include Food grade powder and strips, Agar - Agar Bacteriological grade marketed in different specifications - Standard, Super, Superfine and Pharma grade to meet the requirements of different clientele. A bulk of the production of Agar - Agar goes for application in Culture Media.
Since various ingredients other than Agar - Agar are needed by the Culture Media producers, we were receiving frequent enquiries to supply the same. Hence to offer better services to our customers a new division of Marine Chemicals under the name Meron Ingredients was formed in 1996 to develop and market Culture Media ingredients. Ever since its inception this new division has gained strong foot hold both in the domestic and international markets and is currently one of the top exporter of Culture Media ingredients from India.

Flower specialization and pollination

Flower specialization and pollination

A poster with twelve species of flowers or clusters of flowers of different families
Each flower has a specific design which best encourages the transfer of its pollen. Cleistogamous flowers are self pollinated, after which, they may or may not open. Many Viola and some Salvia species are known to have these types of flowers.
Entomophilous flowers attract and use insects, bats, birds or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. Flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on their various parts that attract these animals. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that show pollinators where to look for nectar. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and color. Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Flowers are also specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits.
Anemophilous flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next, examples include the grasses, Birch trees, Ragweed and Maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be "showy" flowers. Male and female reproductive organs are generally found in separate flowers, the male flowers having a number of long filaments terminating in exposed stamens, and the female flowers having long, feather-like stigmas. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in protein (another "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to insects.

TRANSGENIC ANIMALS

GENITICALLY ENGINEERING ANIMALS

GENETICALLY ENGINEERED ANIMALS
ARS suggests curbing myostatin might be key to better cuts of beef - MeatingPlace.comA report released last week from the Agricultural Research Service unveiled genetic strategies to help promote leaner and more flavorful cuts of beef from cattle.
Fluorescent chicken to bring medical breakthrough - Hankooki NewsSouth Korean scientists have developed a technology which they claim will open the door to the mass production of biomedical materials, including a cancer-fighting enzyme, in a couple of years.
Brazil creating transgenic cow with blood thickener in milk - Channel News AsiaBrazilian researchers are developing embryos to create a transgenic cow whose milk could be used to produce drugs to treat blood disorders, scientists said Tuesday.
Japanese researchers develop novel method of introducing transgenes into animals - Medical News TodayReproductive biologists at Kyoto University have, according to this story, succeeded in producing the first animal offspring with transgenic material carried directly from sperm stem cells "infected" by a retrovirus.
Transgenic chickens help UK's Oxford Biomedica fly - ReutersA potential breakthrough in the production of protein-based drugs in the eggs of genetically modified chickens lifted shares in British biotech firm Oxford Biomedica eight percent.
Research Fuels Fear of Gene-Altered Fish - Seattle TimesIn a head-to-head battle for food, normal coho salmon lose out to their genetically engineered cousins, says a new study that adds to the controversy over what critics call "frankenfish."
Two by two…..or not? A look at transgenic animals, ethics and regulation - PewAgBiotechWhat: The Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology (PIFB) will host a policy dialogue to engage thought leaders on the ethical and regulatory issues raised by the introduction of genetically modified (GM) animals.
Scientists develop mad cow-resistant bovine embryo for medical use - The Globe and MailJapanese and U.S. scientists have genetically engineered a bovine embryo that is resistant to the deadly mad cow disease and they plan to breed several of the cows to use them to make medicines to treat human diseases, an official said Monday.
Pharmaceutical protein production in hen eggs - ISB News ReportProduction of human pharmaceutical glycosylated proteins (e.g., monoclonal antibodies) is currently constrained due to limited production capacity. Fermentation bioreactors that exploit the protein production capabilities of Pichia pastoris and Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, for example, are prohibitively expensive.
Korean scientists create medicine-embedded pigs - Hankooki TimesMilk and urine of genetically engineered pigs will be sources of high-priced medicine for thrombosis, or blood clotting, which can result in a stroke or heart attack.
Cows bred to produce potential anti-tumor protein - ReutersScientists in Europe have created genetically engineered cows that produce a protein in their blood that might be used to treat human cases of melanoma.
Genetically Modified Sperm in Fish - ISB News ReportGenetically modified (GM) sperm can introduce foreign DNA into every cell in a founder individual. This avoids mosaicism that is inherent in conventional transgenic techniques, such as a microinjection of DNA into eggs, chimeras of transfected ES cells, viral infection of embryos, and sperm-mediated gene transfer into oocytes.
Push to have GM salmon approved - BBC NewsA Canadian firm developing genetically modified fish says it aims to apply for regulatory approval by the end of 2004.
Genetically modified fish could damage ecology - Purdue UniversityThe genetic modifications that improve animals for human consumption also could doom populations if released into the wild, according to a Purdue University research team.
Reaping the Biotech Harvest - Truth About TradeToday's biotechnology includes the use of genetically modified animals in medicine; in the production of special foods, human drugs, and medical devices; in the development of animal and industrial products; and in insect-based pest and disease control.
Transgenic fish pose extinction threat - UPINew evidence shows genetically modified fish released into the environment could drive wild fish populations to extinction, scientists told United Press International Tuesday.
Joint action to control release of GM animal material - Animal NetFederal officials today announced action to control a release of genetically modified animal material from TGN Biotech Inc., a Quebec research firm.
BPI seeks strategic input into research approvals - BioScience NewsBPI seeks more strategic input arising from fate of transgenic sheep.
Cow produces human growth hormone - EFEArgentina has become the first country in Latin America to develop two generations of cloned cows, which will, in turn, be capable of producing human growth hormone.
Gene-Altered Mice Create Healthful Oils - Washington PostScientists in Boston have created a line of genetically engineered mice that make their own omega-3 fatty acids -- healthful oils, typically found in fish, that mice, humans and other mammals cannot normally make on their own.
Transgenic livestock R&D offers hope for hemophiliacs - Taipai JournalGenetic engineering in Taiwan has made another stride forward in the research and development of technology that could prove highly useful in the treatment of hemophilia.
Transgenic zebrafish produced by retroviral infection of in vitro-cultured sperm - NASTransgenic modification of sperm before fertilization has distinct advantages over conventional transgenic methods. The primary advantage is that the mosaicism inherent in those other techniques is avoided.
Scientists Modify Sperm to Add New Fish to the Gene Pool - The GuardianFor the first time, US and Japanese scientists have genetically modified sperm, grown it in a laboratory dish and used it to produce a transgenic creature.
Biotechnology in the Food Chain - NOVISAnimal biotechnology applications in food production are about to take off, according to a recent report from market analyst Research and Markets. The report analyses how transgenic technologies are being used in a number of ways, such as improving milk production and the meat in farm animals.
Unlocking the Mysteries of Milk - The Globe and MailIf the latest promises of science are to be believed, the advertisements informing us that "milk does a body good" may soon have to be revised to read: "Better milk does a body even better."
New T.O. Mouse House Key to Research Rat Race - Toronto Star Newspapers It will be Canada's finest mouse house, designed to give the world a map for human health.
Milking Goats for Malaria Vaccine - BioMedNet NewsA herd of transgenic goats in Massachusetts could save millions of lives, claim the biotechnologists who developed them. Their milk contains the key ingredient of a malaria vaccine, say the researchers, and can yield up to 5 kg of this protein a year.
Fish Created to Fight Environmental Pollution Expected to be a Commercial Success - APAmerican aquariums could soon be aglow with bright red fluorescent fish, the nation's first genetically altered household pet. Soon other fish could follow, glowing under black light like the colors of a rainbow.
Food and Drug Administration Won't Regulate First Biotech Pet - APThe federal Food and Drug Administration formally announced Tuesday that it won't regulate the nation's first genetically engineered household pet, a glowing fish scheduled to debut early next month.
Reversibly-Sterile Fish Via Transgenesis - ISB News ReportSterile fish are of interest in aquaculture both to help maximise growth and, when necessary, to ensure reproductive containment. The latter aspect is now of particular interest in connection with the possible exploitation of GM fish, since growth enhanced GM salmon (Salmo salar) and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) have been produced and tested.
Company Euthanizes Genetically Modified Goats - APThe chief executive of a biotechnology company said the company has euthanized 214 genetically modified goats.
Nexia Soars on News of U.S. Army Tests - ReutersShares of Nexia Biotechnologies soared more than 30 percent after the research wing of the U.S. Army found the company's Protexia protein can neutralize deadly nerve agents, according to Reuters.
Insulin From Fish a Possibility - Hindustan TimesIndian researchers have found a way to derive insulin from fish that could be used to treat diabetes.
One Fish, Two Fish, Genetically New Fish - Chicago TribuneElliot Entis has a whopper of a fish tale to tell. Now if he could only come up with an ending. Entis' story is about a salmon that has been genetically modified to grow to its full size of 8 pounds in just 18 months, half the time for a normal fish. Entis and his backers champion the fish, called the "AquAdvantage" salmon, as cheap, nutritious and environmentally friendly.
Midwest Research Looks at Cows to Produce Vaccines - APResearch to help defend against diseases that could be spread by bioterrorists is being carried out in the pastures of northwest Iowa. One company hopes to produce antibodies that can be used in humans to protect against diseases such as smallpox, botulism and anthrax.
GM Mice Spark Intellectual Property Debate - PewAgBiotechEach year, millions of mice are genetically engineered to develop tumors that precisely mimic human cancers — a technology that could lead to the swift development of new and targeted treatments, reports the LA Times.
Security Measures Taken to Protect Biotechnology - Des Moines RegisterAgricultural biotechnology endeavors in Iowa generally have not been the targets of sabotage, industry officials and university researchers said, but companies have added security in recent years.
This Chicken Could Change Your Life - Business ReportLSU researcher Richard Cooper's work could dramatically reduce the cost of pharmaceuticals-and put Baton Rouge on the biotech map.
Biotech Animals - APAccording to this story, while U.S. consumers have come to accept food from genetically engineered plants, animals are a different issue.
A Future For Transgenic Livestock - NatureThe techniques that are used to generate transgenic livestock are inefficient and expensive. This, coupled with the fact that most agriculturally relevant traits are complex and controlled by more than one gene, has restricted the use of transgenic technology. New methods for modifying the genome will underpin a resurgence of research using transgenic livestock. This will not only increase our understanding of basic biology in commercial species, but might also lead to the generation of animals that are more resistant to infectious disease.
RecA and Transgenic Livestock Production: a Method to Improve Efficiency - VA Tech ISBPronuclear microinjection was used over twenty years ago to generate the first transgenic animal and remains in use today. Since its first reported use, few improvements have been made to the technique.
GM Fish Made Quickly: Transgenic Transplant Technique Could Aid Endangered Species - NatureA new technique that speeds up the production of genetically modified fish could, according to this story, help to preserve endangered species such as Atlantic salmon and Gila trout.
Poll: Consumers Dislike Altering Animals - APConsumers generally support tinkering with plant genes so crops will produce inexpensive medicines, but they are less comfortable with the idea of modifying animals for the same purpose, a new survey says.
Transgenic Cow Programme Targets Lysosomal Disease - CheckbiotechAgResearch's transgenic cows programme will start work to produce a therapeutic protein to treat the rare lysosomal storage disease Pompe disease, as soon as issues like intellectual property are sorted out. Their decision has won praise from the patient advocacy group, Lysosomal Diseases New Zealand, but concern has already been expressed by LDNZ that continued opposition from MadGE and other anti-GE groups could add further impediments.
Researchers Hit on Raw Fish Way to Serve Vaccines - CheckbiotechA vaccination could one day come in the form of a tasty slice of sashimi.
Aqua Bounty Receives $1.68 Million NIST Award - PRNewswireAqua Bounty Technologies has been awarded a $1,680,000 grant from the National Institute of Standards and Technology's Advanced Technology Program to develop a genetic technique that allows fish farmers to breed fish safely in captivity but prevents the same fish from reproducing if they escape into the wild.
Making a Silk Purse Out of a Goat's Milk - E4EngineeringA UK company is developing technology to spin silk like spiders' webs for industrial, medical and domestic applications.
California Would Ban Ocean Salmon Farms, Gene-Altered Fish Under Bill - San Francisco ChronicleFearing escapes of non-native fish into the wild, the state Legislature on Wednesday passed a ban against the entry of salmon farms and the raising of genetically engineered fish in California ocean waters.
Pig Genetics Development A Breed Apart From Genetically Modified Foods - Animal NetSeveral members of the British-Caribbean Chamber of Commerce Agri-Food Consortium were cited as saying in this story that there is a clear distinction between pig genetics development and genetically modified foods.
Got Antibodies?; Cows Aren't Just For Milking Anymore. They're The Latest in Anti-Terror Technology. Goats Too. - Chicago TribuneStaring sullenly at passing cars and shaking off flies, the cows at Trans Ova Genetics are indistinguishable from the thousands of others in this remote corner of northwest Iowa. But a red sign near an entrance hints that Trans Ova's cows are not exactly normal. It reads: "For Bio Security. Authorized Personnel Only."
Animal-Genetics Researchers Pouring it on - USA TodayImagine being able to buy not just whole and low-fat milk at the supermarket, but also a special heart-healthy variety with anti-carcinogenic characteristics.
Piglets Add Some Colour to Transgenic Story - Nature via CheckbiotechResearchers in Italy and Australia are to introduce 18 transgenic piglets to a meeting in California next week, in an attempt to convince sceptics that their disputed transgenic methodology does indeed work. They say that the technique could be a cheap and efficient way to produce animals expressing multiple foreign genes.
Altered Meat, Milk Waiting in The Wings - The Sacramento BeeEven if the FDA gives consent, will the public go for them? One week before he was scheduled to talk to a group of fellow scientists about the commercial potential of biotech livestock, George Seidel Jr. wasn't sure what he would conclude.
AviGenics, Inc. Announces Production of Bioactive Human Proteins Using Transgenic Chickens - PRNewswireAviGenics, Inc. today announced successful production of biologically active human interferon and human monoclonal antibodies in transgenic chickens. This significant milestone in the validation of AviGenics' transgenic chicken platform was described at the IBC Conference, "Scaling-Up from Bench to Clinic and Beyond: Advances in Bioprocessing Strategies for Successful Commercialization" in Durham, North Carolina.
Next on the Transgenic List: Production - Scientists Target Genes That Will Make Herds Healthier - Spark Plug via Animal NetSelective breeding programs create healthy herds with the best production traits. But one University of Guelph researcher thinks he can do better, by targeting specific genes and speeding up selection.
First GM Fish, Safe and Sterile - ReutersWhen the world's first genetically engineered fish, the glowing "Night Pearl", hit the market two months ago, its Taiwan developer hoped for a sea of profits.
Transgenic Sheep Slaughtered as Dolly's Creators Run Out of Money - The IndependentHundreds of genetically modified animals bred by PPL Therapeutics, the Scottish bio-technology company which helped to clone Dolly the sheep, were being culled yesterday on two farms in East Lothian and New Zealand. The operation to reduce the 6,500-strong flock also marked the end of a dream to transform medicine production and make millions of pounds in the process.
Makers of Cloned Sheep End Drug Venture - APThe British company that created Dolly the cloned sheep said it is ending a venture to make medicine from sheep's milk and laying off up to 90 percent of its workforce.
Pew Initiative/FDA Conferences on Animal Biotechnology and Cloning Suggest Regulation and Ethical Discussions Must Keep Pace With Scientific Developments - PewAgBiotechDevelopment and commercialization of transgenic and cloned animals present new challenges for regulators, and may be ahead of important public debate about ethical and animal rights issues, according to some of the nation's leading voices on these topics who spoke at two consecutive conferences on animal biotechnology and cloning sponsored last year by the Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
V

PLANT TISSUE CULTURE

In 1965, French botanist George Morel was attempting to obtain a virus-free orchid plant when he discovered that a millimetre-long shoot could be developed into complete plantlets by micropropagation. This was the beginning of tissue culture. Thereafter, in the 1970s developed countries began commercial exploitation of this technology. It entered the developing world in the 1980s. It was earlier used to develop ornamental plants and flowering plants for export. With tree species, the technique of tissue culture remained confined for many years to the laboratory stage and had generally invited only academic interest. But in most developing countries, the shortage of biomass and the ever-increasing energy requirements created the need to explore possibilities of mass propagation of trees by tissue culture.
Tissue culture or mass cloning methods of elite tree species is done for increasing land productivity. They are being modified or adapted for large-scale modification.
Species are selected for tissue culture on the following basis.
Species that have regeneration problems, specially because of poor seed set or germination (as in Anogeissus and bamboo). In these cases, seeds collected from superior trees are used for initiating cultures.
Species that vary markedly in their desirable traits, i.e. Eucalyptus. The selected trees are marked from the variant population for the desirable trait such as disease resistance, straight bole, higher productivity, etc. in consultation with officials from state forest department or growers.
Species where plants of any one particular sex is of commercial importance, for example female plants of papaya and male plants of asparagus
In tissue culture cells, tissues, and organs of a plant are separated. These separated cells are grown especially in containers with a nutrient media under controlled conditions of temperature and light. The cultured plant requires a source of energy from sugar, salts, a few vitamins, amino acids, etc. that are provided in the nutrient media. From these cultured parts, an embryo or a shoot bud may develop, which then grows into a whole new plantlet. Similarly, portions of organs or tissues can be cultured in a culture media. Generally, these give rise to an unorganized mass of cells called callus (soft tissue that forms over a cut surface).
Tissue culture plantlets have poor photosynthesis efficiency and lack the proper mechanism to control water loss. They need to be hardened gradually by moving them along a humidity gradient in the greenhouse. Once these plants are in the research fields, they are evaluated under field conditions and the data is collected every 6 months. A large number of tissue culture plants that have grown into trees are remarkably uniform and show an increase in biomass production over the conventionally raised plants.
Figure Tissue culture and totipotency
Application of tissue culture
MicropropagationRapid vegetative multiplication of valuable plant material for agriculture, horticulture, and forestry.
Production of disease-free plantsWhen the apex of shoot is used for multiplication by tissue culture, we get disease free plants because the shoot apical meristem, a group of dividing cells at the tip of a stem or root, is free from pathogens.
Plant breedingTissue culture has also been successfully used in plant breeding programmes.
Production of disease- and pest-resistant plantsPlants grown from tissue culture usually pass trough callus phase and show many variations. These show some agronomic characteristics like tolerance to pests, diseases, etc.
CloningGenetically identical plants derived from an individual are called clones. Processes that produce clones can be put under the term ‘cloning’. This includes all the methods of vegetative propagation such as cutting, layering, and grafting. Propagation by tissue culture also helps in producing clones. Using the shoot tip, it is possible to obtain a large number of plantlets. This technique is used extensively in the commercial field for micropropagation of ornamental plants like chrysanthemum, gladiolus, etc. and also crops such as sugar cane, tapioca, and potato. Thus an unlimited number of plants that are genetically similar or are clones can be produced in a short span of time by tissue culture.
Large-scale propagation
To bridge the gap between research and application, the Department of Biotechnology, Government of India sponsored the setting-up of two pilot-scale facilities for large-scale propagation of elite planting material of forest trees through tissue culture. One of these facilities has been established at TERI’s 36-hectare-campus in Gual Pahari, Haryana with an annual capacity of a million plantlets. Research at these facilities focuses exclusively on developing new protocols for mass cloning of elite planting material, mainly of trees.
Till date, over 4 million plants have been dispatched for field plantation from these facilities. The tissue culture raised plants are presently being evaluated under field conditions. This is being done in tandem with the forest departments of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, and Orissa. For initial screening for phenotypically superior trees only a few hundred plantlets of the same are raised and tested under various agroclimatic zones. The best clones are then mass multiplied and monitored regularly for their performance. Field data suggest a survival percentage of more than 90% even in the harsh conditions of Aravalis without the life-saving irrigation. At half the rotation age some of the selected clones of Eucalyptus are showing a significant increase in productivity as compared to the conventional seed raised progenies.

MBA STUDY CENTERS

WaltairVisakhapatnamAndhra PradeshIndia
Pin Code: 530003
Telephone: +91-891-2844000

Fax: +91-891-2755324, 2525611

Official Website: http://www.andhrauniversity/.

ABOUT THE UNIVERSITY
Institution Motto / Tagline / Slogan: Thejasvinaa Vadeetha Masthu
Year of Establishment: 1925
Type of University/College/Institution: State University formed by an act of the Madras Legislature
Membership:

The University is a member of The Association of Indian Universities (AIU)
UGC Recognition: Yes
UGC Grants/Funding: Funded By UGC
NAAC Rating: A (85-90 Grade points)
Certification: ISO 9001-2000 Certified Organization
The University, in its first year of operations in 1926 has few faculty staff and only six students. The next year, student strength rose to 17. In 1936, the student strength is at 200 and rose to 600 by 1946 and 2800 by 1966.
The University has colleges from Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Visakhapatnam, Guntur, East Godavari and West Godavari districts under its jurisdiction.

KAKATHIYA UNIVERSITY

Kakatiya University, Warangal was established in 1976 by upgrading the then PG Centre of the Osmania University originally started in 1967. The main objective behind the establishment of this University was to provide educational facilities to the people of Northern Telangana, a backward region of Andhra Pradesh. From 1967 to 1982, books were acquired by the University Library but maintained in the respective departments. (i.e., issuing and maintenance). It was on 18th November 1967 that the first book was entered in the annals of library records. Having felt the need for establishing a University Library for optimum utilization of library collection, University Library Building was constructed by Prof. K.Venkat Ramaiah, the first Vice-Chancellor of Kakatiya University widely considered the architect of the University. The building was inaugurated in the year 1982. Subsequently, the collection of erstwhile departmental libraries was pooled and open access system introduced in place of closed access system. The prime function of the University Library is to provide study and research facilities to the Students, Research Scholars and Faculty members of the University. The Library which was started with this humble aim made rapid strides over the years and has grown into the present University Library. It is one of the big libraries in this area catering to the needs of the students and scholars of not only the University Campus but also of all colleges under Kakatiya University jurisdiction.

Though the book-acquiring process has started in 1967, the University Library came into existence only in 1982. During the last 18 years of its existence, the University Library has grown into a manifold Institute. In view of the growing needs of the library and demands of users, several sections have been created to facilitate proper organization and maintenance of the library.

The library functions throughout the year barring festival holidays. During all working days the library operates in three shifts from 8.00 a.m. to 8.00 p.m. and on Sundays and Second Saturdays from 10.00 a.m. to 4.00 p.m. to cater to the needs of the readers. During the examination time the library hours are extended upto 12.00 p.m. late nights.

2. SECTIONS

At present the library has the following sections for each type of work/service. They are:

Administrative Section
Acquisition Section
Technical Section
Reference & Textbook Section
Periodicals Sections
Stack Section (SS & Arts)
Stack Section (S&T)
Circulation Section
Competitive Examinations Material Cell
Newspapers and Magazines Section
Internet
INFLIBNET
Database Management
Online journals, e-Consortia

2.1. ADMINISTRATION

The main function of this section is planning development and management of the library which involve general maintenance of the library, budget control, staff management, processing of bills, library correspondence, maintenance of office records, shifts arrangement and coordination with University administration, departments and other offices.

2.2. ACQUISITION

There are 20 departments on the campus having an annual book grant of Rs.20,000/- each and Rs.1.00 lakh to the library for the purchase of reference books. An amount of Rs.2,00,000/- sanction by ITDA, Eturnagaram for the purchase of books exclusively for ST students in the year 2004. The other self finance programmes allocate 10% of grant towards the purchase books from the total receipts of the year and books purchased under Self-finance course programme are maintained in the concerned departments.

SC - 1235 BOOKS purchased in the year 1992.
ST - 1402 BOOKS purchased in the year 2005.

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WORLD ECONOMIC

TRADITIONAL ECONOMICS

You have two cows.

You sell one and buy a bull.

Your herd multiplies and the economy grows.

You retire on the income.

INDIAN ECONOMICS

You have two cows.

You worship them.

PAKISTAN ECONOMICS

You don't have any cows.

You claim that the Indian cows belong to you.

You ask the US for financial aid,

China for military aid,

Britain for warplanes,

Italy for machines,

Germany for technology,

France for submarines,

Switzerland for loans,

Russia for drugs andJapan for equipment.

You buy the cows with all this and claim of exploitation by the world

AMERICAN ECONOMICS

You have two cows.

You sell one and force the other to produce the milk of four cows.

You profess surprise when the cow drops dead.

You put the blame on some nation with cows & naturally that nation willbe a danger to mankind.

You wage a war to save the world and grab the cows.

FRENCH ECONOMICS

You have two cows.

You go on strike because you want three cows.

GERMAN ECONOMICS

You have two cows.

You re-engineer them so that they live for 100 years, eat once a monthand milk themselves.

BRITISH ECONOMICS

You have two cows.

They are both mad.

ITALIAN ECONOMICS

You have two cows.

You don't know where they are.

You break for lunch.

SWISS ECONOMICS

You have 5000 cows, none of which belong to you.

You charge others for storing them.

JAPANESE ECONOMICS

You have two cows.

You re-design them so that th ey are one-tenth the size of an ordinarycow and produce twenty times the milk.

You then create cute cartoon cow images called Cowkimon and market themworldwide.

CHINESE ECONOMICS

You have two cows.

You have 300 people milking them.

You claim full employment, high bovine productivity and arrest anyonereporting the actual numbers.

RUSSIAN ECONOMICS

You have two cows.

You count them again & learn you have 42 cows.

You count them again &learn you have 17 cows.

You give up counting & open another bottle of vodka.